ABSTRACT: A recent discussion on the smt-list focused on Nicholas Cook's claim in Music, Imagination, and Culture that musical analysis is essentially metaphorical. This essay investigates this claim through a review of recent work on metaphor by cognitive scientists. This work both supports and modifies Cook's original claim. The latter portion of the essay presents examples of two applications of research on metaphor to music theory.
...in our most basic apprehension of music there lies a complex system of metaphor, which is the true description of no material fact. And the metaphor cannot be eliminated from the description of music, because it is integral to the intentional object of musical experience. Take this metaphor away and you take away the experience of music.What Scruton sees as the unyielding metaphoricity of musical understanding points to the intentional nature of music, and leads him to assert that "Music belongs uniquely to the intentional sphere, and not to the material realm. Any analysis of music must be an exercise in intentional rather than scientific understanding."{2}
[2.2] In his book Cook adopts Scruton's argument in a very explicit way,
and makes it specific to the concerns of music theory. Speaking of
Schenkerian analysis in the introduction, Cook writes, "A Schenkerian
analysis is not a scientific explanation, but a metaphorical one; it
is not an account of how people actually hear pieces of music, but a
way of imagining them."
[2.3] Although Scruton's (and, by extension, Cook's) assertion about the
metaphoricity of musical understanding occurs as part of a larger
rationalistic argument about musical ontology, there is a body of recent
empirical work by cognitive scientists that supports this assertion. This
research suggests that metaphor is not simply an anomalous use of language
or a mark of the way we conceive intentional objects but is in fact central
to human understanding as a whole. This research is also distinct from
other discussions of the importance of metaphor to musical understanding,
whether from a philosophical
I'm feeling up. My spirits rose. I'm feeling down.consciousness:
I fell into a depression. My spirits sank.
Get up. I'm up already. He rises early in the morning. He fell asleep.and health:
He's at the peak of health. Lazarus rose from the dead.Each characterization suggests not a literal representation of the spatial domain implied by the orientation up-down, but instead uses our knowledge of physical space to structure our understanding of emotions, consciousness, or health.
She's in top shape. He came down with the flu.
[3.2] Based on evidence provided by a large number of similar
examples of the appearance of metaphorical constructions in everyday
discourse, Lakoff and Johnson proposed that metaphor was a basic
structure of understanding through which we conceptualize one domain
(typically unfamiliar or abstract--the target domain) in terms of
another (most often familiar and concrete--the source domain). Further
study has provided a wealth of empirical evidence for this proposal
and contributed to the development of the field of cognitive linguistics.
[3.3] Fundamental to the theory of metaphor that sprang from Lakoff and
Johnson's work is a distinction between conceptual metaphors and linguistic
metaphors. A conceptual metaphor is a cognitive mapping between two
different domains; a linguistic metaphor is an expression of such a mapping
through language. For instance, the conceptual metaphor STATE OF BEING IS
ORIENTATION IN VERTICAL SPACE maps relationships in physical space onto
mental and physical states.
My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness painsHere the descent to the mythical river gives a physical correlate to the narcotic state of the narrator--the act of sinking is mapped onto a melancholy emotional state--and serves as yet another expression of the conceptual metaphor STATE OF BEING IS ORIENTATION IN VERTICAL SPACE.
My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains
One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk.
[3.4] The process of cross-domain mapping offers a systematic way to explain our commonplace notions of musical space. There is ample evidence that our characterization of musical pitches in terms of "high" and "low" is basically metaphorical. Consider "high" and "low" on the piano: how can D4 be "above" C4 on the piano when they are both on the same horizontal plane? Think of playing the two notes on the 'cello--to play the "higher" D4, we have to move our left hand down, so that it is closer to the ground. Behind these linguistic expressions is the conceptual metaphor PITCH RELATIONSHIPS ARE RELATIONSHIPS IN VERTICAL SPACE, which maps spatial orientations such as up-down onto the pitch continuum.
[3.5] Although Scruton argued that it was virtually inconceivable to construe
pitch in any way other than an up-down spatial relationship, evidence to
the contrary comes from a variety of sources. Greek music theorists of
antiquity spoke not of "high" and "low" but of "sharpness" and
"heaviness"; in Bali and Java pitches are not "high" and "low" but "small"
and "large"; and among the Suy� of the Amazon basin, pitches are not
"high" and "low" but "young" and "old."
[3.6] The variety of conceptual metaphors used to characterize pitch
relations leads to the question of the ultimate grounding of the process of
cross-domain mapping. Even if we grant that we understand a target domain
(such as pitch relationships) in terms of a source domain (such as
orientation in vertical space), how is it that we understand the source
domain in the first place? Mark Johnson endeavored to answer this question
by proposing that meaning was grounded in repeated patterns of bodily
experience.
[3.7] As one example of an image schema, consider the VERTICALITY schema, which might be summarized by a diagram of the sort given in Example 1. We grasp this structure repeatedly in thousands of perceptions and activities that we experience every day. Typical of these are the experiences of perceiving a tree, our felt sense of standing upright, the activity of climbing stairs, forming a mental image of a flagpole, and watching the level of water rise in the bathtub. The VERTICALITY schema is the abstract structure of the VERTICALITY experiences, images, and perceptions. Our concept of verticality is based on this schema, and this concept is in turn invoked by the various conceptual metaphors that use vertical space as a source domain through which to structure target domains such as emotions, consciousness, health, and musical pitch.
Example 1: Diagram of VERTICALITY schema
[3.8] By definition, image schemata are preconceptual: they are not
concepts, but they provide the fundamental structure upon which concepts
are based. In consequence, it is important to emphasize that the diagrams
used to illustrate image schemata are intended to represent the key
structural features and internal relations of image schemata; they are not
meant to summon a rich image or mental picture that we somehow have "in
mind," and use to actively structure our thought. More directly, whatever
actually occupies our thoughts isn't, by definition, an image schema. We
can conceive of image schemata, just as we can conceive of any of a
number of non-conceptual or preconceptual cognitive processes. We can also
note general patterns in the way concepts are structured, which can be
attributed to image schemata. However, there are, by definition, no
'image-schema concepts.'
[3.9] The relationship between the VERTICALITY schema and our characterization of musical pitch with reference to the spatial orientation up-down is fairly immediate: when we make low sounds, our chest resonates; when we make high sounds, our chest no longer resonates in the same way, and the source of the sound seems located nearer our head. The "up" and "down" of musical pitch thus correlate with the spatial "up" and "down"--the vertical orientation--of our bodies. The VERTICALITY schema offers a straightforward way to explain why we characterize musical pitch in terms of high and low even when the actual spatial orientation of the means through which we produce pitches either does not reinforce the characterization or runs directly counter to it.
[3.10] The theory of image schemata provides one way of explaining how conceptual metaphors are grounded. However, it does not, by itself, explain why some conceptual metaphors seem intuitively better than others. For instance, the conceptual metaphor PITCHES ARE FRUIT could provide the grounding for such (admittedly idiosyncratic) expressions as "You must play the first note more like an apple, the second more like a banana." To account for why some metaphorical mappings are more effective than others, George Lakoff and Mark Turner proposed that such mappings are not about the imposition of the structure of the source domain on the target domain, but are instead about the establishment of correspondences between the two domains. These correspondences are not haphazard, but instead preserve the image-schematic structure latent in each domain. Lakoff and Turner formalized this perspective with the Invariance Principle, which Turner states as follows:
In metaphoric mapping, for those components of the source and target domains determined to be involved in the mapping, preserve the image-schematic structure of the target, and import as much image-schematic structure from the source as is consistent with that preservation.[3.11] Mapping the spatial orientation up-down onto pitch works because of correspondences between the image-schematic structure of components of the spatial and acoustical domains. Both space and the frequency spectrum are continua that can be divided into discontinuous elements. In the spatial domain, division of the continuum results in points; in the acoustic domain, it results in pitches. Mapping up-down onto pitch allows us to import the concrete relationships through which we understand physical space into the domain of music, and thereby provide a coherent account of relationships between musical pitches. Mapping various fruits onto musical pitches works less well because fruit do not (in any ordinary way) constitute a continuum. To employ this mapping is to highlight instead the discontinuity among musical pitches, as well as how they are unlike one another (an emphasis on difference suggested by the idiomatic phrase "like apples and oranges").{16}
[3.12] One additional factor that guides cross-domain mapping is cultural
knowledge. As seen above, different cultures have different ways of
organizing their understanding of pitch relationships; the same goes for
virtually every other aspect of music.
[4.2] Inasmuch as music theory is part of human understanding, it follows that metaphor must play a part in our theories of music. In light of this, Cook's claim that 'a Schenkerian analysis is not a scientific explanation, but a metaphorical one' seems inevitable. However, the claim, as such, is only a beginning. Research on metaphor not only gives support to the claim, but also obligates the claimant to undertake a systematic elaboration of how metaphor is instantiated in Schenker's--or anyone's --accounts of music. In the following, I would like to give examples of two applications of research on metaphor to music theory, and briefly discuss two extensions of research on metaphor that hold promise for a better understanding of how we conceptualize music.
Den Menschen is die Erfahrung eines Endes, des Erl�schens aller Spannungen und Ziele gegeben. In diesem Sinne ist es uns ein nat�rliches Bed�rfnis, auch die Urlinie bis hinab zum Grundton 1 zu f�hren, wie auch den Ba� wieder zum Grundton des Klanges zur�ckfallen zu lassen; mit 1/I erl�schen alle Spannungen eines Kunstorganismus. (1956: sec, 10, p. 43; emphasis added) [To man is given the experience of ending, the cessation of all tensions and efforts. In this sense, we feel by nature that the fundamental line must lead downward until it reaches 1, and that the bass must fall back to the fundamental. With 1/I all tensions in a musical work cease. (1979: sec. 10, p. 13)][5.2] In the first passage Spannung invokes a conceptual metaphor that correlates the domain of human experience with that of pitch organization; in its broadest form, this metaphor could be stated as MUSICAL PITCHES ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. This conceptual metaphor is important throughout Schenker's work, and is associated with his interpretation of pitch relationships as highly dynamic.Freilich, bei Spannungen ueber gr�ssere Strecken ist Genie, die Gabe der Improvisation und des Weith�rens Voraussetzung. (1956: sec. 30, p. 50; emphasis added) [But genius, the gift of improvisation and long-range hearing is requisite for greater time spans. (1979: sec. 30, p. 18)]
{20}
[5.3] A different conceptual metaphor underlies the second passage. This metaphor correlates the domain of physical structure with the elements of music, and can be rendered as MUSICAL ENTITIES ARE PARTS OF A BUILDING. The 'spans over large stretches' spoken of by Schenker suggest a rather more static image than the first use of Spannung, and one that is directly linked to the notion of 'structure' that pervades much analytical writing.
[5.4] It is important to note that these two conceptual metaphors, although invoked by the same word, are incommensurate. The tension inherent in living beings is not the same thing as a span across physical space. Although we might speak of such a span as being "under tension," this tension can be correlated with life-force only through metaphor. It must also be noted that Schenker's theory of music is in no way deficient in its reliance on a number of conceptual metaphors, for the metaphors serve different purposes. The image evoked by the use of Spannung in the first passage comes from a perspective that views music as highly charged and essentially dynamic. This perspective, engaged and at times passionate, is one of the things that makes Schenker a compelling writer. The image evoked by the use of Spannung in the second passage comes from a perspective that views music as a made object consisting of components and relations. This perspective is a more familiar, "music-theoretical" one, well suited to the deliberate contemplation of musical relations conducive to systematic theorizing and to pedagogy.
[5.5] My discussion of the role of metaphor in structuring our music-
theoretical thought is of necessity brief; however, I can note three, more
extensive treatments of the topic. In one recent article Janna Saslaw
offers a detailed analysis of the modulation theory of Hugo Riemann in
light of current research into metaphor; Saslaw also provides an invaluable
summary of image-schema theory.
[5.6] Research into metaphor can also be used to explain more immediate,
less overtly theoretical ways that we understand music. As an example, let
us consider a bit of text painting from the Credo of Giovanni da
Palestrina's Pope Marcellus Mass; the music is given in Example 2. As
can be seen, with the first occurrence of the word "desc�ndit," each voice
begins a scalar descent. The commonplace answer to why this text painting
works is that the descent evoked by the text correlates with the descent
through musical space. However, as I showed above, there is no necessity to
this correlation: "desc�ndit" also correlates with an increase in
heaviness, an increase in the size of the notes, and the growing age of
each note. Which two domains are correlated depends only on the conceptual
metaphor used to structure pitch relations. A fall-back answer is that the
correlation between physical space and musical pitch is simply stylized:
although there is no necessity to it, it has been done so often that we
readily accept the mapping. A somewhat more interesting answer is that the
physical sensations associated with descent are well represented by a
series of pitches produced by successively less-rapid vibrations of the
sounding medium. The descent of our bodies through physical space (unaided
by artificial means) involves a lessening of kinetic energy and a
continuous action in one direction, articulated by the regular transfer of
weight from one leg to another.
Example 2: Measures 53 through 58 of the Credo of the Pope Marcellus Mass
[Real Audio sound file]
[5.7] This approach could be extended to provide an account of such
kinesthetic notions as gesture, tension, and release. Grounding such
notions in embodied knowledge was proposed by Ray Jackendoff a full ten
years ago. Jackendoff proposed that music is represented cognitively
through a level of mental representation he called bodily representation,
"essentially a body-specific encoding of the internal sense of the states
of the muscles, limbs, and joints."
[5.8] Finally, two extensions of work in cross-domain mapping hold promise
for investigating the structure of musical thought. In his argument for
the importance of figurative thought to human understanding, Raymond Gibbs
makes a strong case for metonymy (where the part stands for the whole) as
well as metaphor as an essential cognitive process.
2. Roger Scruton, "Understanding Music," Ratio 25, no. 2 (1983):
106.
Return to text
3. Scruton, "Understanding Music," 107.
Return to text
4. Nicholas Cook, Music, Imagination, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1990), 4.
Return to text
5. Cook, Music, Imagination, and Culture, 4.
Return to text
6. See, for instance, Cynthia Grund, "Metaphors, Counterfactuals and
Music," in Essays on the Philosophy of Music, edited by Veikko Rantala,
Lewis Rowell, and Eero Tarasti, Acta philosophica Fennica, vol. 43
(Helsinki: Philosophical Society of Finland, 1988), 28-53; and Daniel
Charles, "Music and Antimetaphor (to Eero Tarasti)," in Musical
Signification: Essays in the Semiotic Theory and Analysis of Music, edited
by Eero Tarasti, Approaches to Semiotics, vol. 121 (Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter, 1995), 27-42.
Return to text
7. See, for instance, Marion A. Guck, "Two Types of Metaphoric Transfer,"
in Metaphor: A Musical Dimension, edited by Jamie C. Kassler, reprint,
1991, Musicology, vol. 15 (Basel: Gordon and Breach, 1994), 1-12; and
Robert S. Hatten, "Metaphor in Music," in Musical Signification: Essays
in the Semiotic Theory and Analysis of Music, edited by Eero Tarasti,
Approaches to Semiotics, vol. 121 (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995),
373-91.
Return to text
8. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1980).
Return to text
9. For a review of the empirical evidence supporting metaphor as a basic
cognitive process see Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr., The Poetics of Mind:
Figurative Thought, Language, and Understanding (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994). For discussion of the link between the study of
metaphor as a cognitive process and the central concerns of cognitive
linguistics see George Lakoff, "The Invariance Hypothesis: Is Abstract
Reason Based on Image-Schemas?" Cognitive Linguistics 1, no. 1 (1990):
39-74.
Return to text
10. The conceptual metaphor STATE OF BEING IS ORIENTATION IN VERTICAL
SPACE is a variant of the STATES ARE LOCATIONS conceptual metaphor
discussed by George Lakoff and Mark Turner in More Than Cool Reason: A
Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1989). On cross-domain mapping as a general phenomenon see Lakoff and
Turner, More Than Cool Reason, 4; George Lakoff, "The Contemporary Theory
of Metaphor," in Metaphor and Thought, 2d ed., edited by Andrew Ortony
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 202-51; Gibbs, The Poetics
of Mind; and Gilles Fauconnier, Mappings in Thought and Language
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
For a fine essay that anticipates a good portion of the theoretical
perspective on cross-domain mapping I outline here, see Marianne Kielian-
Gilbert, "Interpreting Musical Analogy: From Rhetorical Device to
Perceptual Process," Music Perception 8, no. 1 (Fall 1990): 63-94.
Return to text
11. The conceptual metaphor MUSIC IS A LANGUAGE structures much of our
discourse about music, and often plays a part in semiotic analyses of music
(inasmuch as the attribution of linguistic tropes to musical events is
oftentimes dependent on this metaphor).
For an intriguing analytical essay that uses the MUSIC IS A LANGUAGE
metaphor as a point of departure, see Justin London, "Musical and
Linguistic Speech Acts," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 54, no.
1 (Winter 1996): 49-64.
Return to text
12. On the matter of the characterization of pitch by Greek music
theorists of antiquity see Andrew Barker (ed.), Greek Musical Writings,
Volume II: Harmonic and Acoustic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1989), n. 43, p. 134. For information about the characterization of
pitch in Bali and Java I am indebted to Benjamin Brinner, personal
communication. Regarding the characterization of musical pitch by the
Suy�, see Anthony Seeger, Why Suy� Sing: A Musical Anthropology of an
Amazonian People (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
Return to text
13. Mark Johnson, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
Return to text
14. Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 2. It should be noted that, for the
most part, the image schema remains a theoretical construct. Nonetheless,
two independent lines of research have leant credence to the notion:
Raymond W. Gibbs Jr. and Herbert L. Colston provide a review of evidence
for image schemata drawn from a wide variety of psychological studies in
"The Cognitive Psychological Reality of Image Schemas and Their
Transformations," Cognitive Linguistics 6, no. 4 (1995): 347-78; Gerald
Edelman discusses connections between image-schema theory and research in
neuroscience in The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of
Consciousness (New York: Basic Books, 1989), chapter 8.
Return to text
15. It is also important to note that image schemata do not simply reduce
to gestures, nor gestures to image schemata. For a discussion, see David
McNeill, Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1992), 263-64.
Return to text
16. Mark Turner, "Aspects of the Invariance Hypothesis," Cognitive Linguistics 1, no. 2 (1990): 254; emphasis as in original. For additional writings on the Invariance Principle (which at first was called the Invariance Hypothesis) see Lakoff, "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor"; Lakoff, "The Invariance Hypothesis"; Mark Turner, "An Image-Schematic Constraint on Metaphor," in Conceptualizations and Mental Processing in Language, edited by Richard A. Geiger and Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn, Cognitive Linguistics Research, vol. 3 (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1993), 291-306; and Mark Turner, The Literary Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), chapter 3.
A preliminary discussion of a similar sort of topographical invariance,
with applications to music, can be found in Peter G�rdenfors, "Semantics,
Conceptual Spaces and the Dimensions of Music," in Essays on the
Philosophy of Music, edited by Veikko Rantala, Lewis Rowell, and Eero
Tarasti, Acta philosophica Fennica, vol. 43 (Helsinki: Philosophical
Society of Finland, 1988), 9-27.
Return to text
17. A particularly interesting example of how a culture organizes their
understanding of pitch relationships (and one which builds on Lakoff and
Johnson's early work) is provided by Steven Feld's discussion of music
theory among the Kaluli of Papua New Guinea. See Feld, "Flow Like a
Waterfall: The Metaphors of Kaluli Musical Theory," Yearbook for
Traditional Music 13 (1981): 22-47.
Return to text
18. For additional discussion of idealized cognitive models and their
relationship to cultural knowledge see Gilles Fauconnier, Mental Spaces:
Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Language, 2d ed., with a
foreword by George Lakoff and Eve Sweetser, reprint, 1985 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994), chapter 1; George Lakoff, Women, Fire,
and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1987), part I; Naomi Quinn and Dorothy
Holland, "Culture and Cognition," in Cultural Models in Language and
Thought, edited by Dorothy Holland and Naomi Quinn (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987), 3-40; Gibbs, The Poetics of Mind, chapter 4; and
Bradd Shore, Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture, and the Problem of
Meaning (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), chapter 13.
Return to text
19. I have, however, discussed such knowledge structures elsewhere. See
Lawrence Zbikowski, Large-Scale Rhythm and Systems of Grouping, Ph.D.
Diss. (Yale University, 1991), chapter 4; and Lawrence Zbikowski, "Charles
Seeger's Unitary Field Theory for Musicology and Recent Theories of
Linguistic and Cognitive Structure," in Foundations of Modern Musicology:
Understanding Charles Seeger, edited by Bell Yung and Helen Rees,
forthcoming.
Return to text
20. Heinrich Schenker, Der freie Satz, 2d ed., edited by Oswald Jonas, Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, vol. 3 (Vienna: Universal Edition, 1956); English translation from Heinrich Schenker, Free Composition (Der Freie Satz), edited and translated by Ernst Oster, New musical theories and fantasies, vol. 3 (New York: Schirmer Books, 1979). I have used the 1956 edition of Der freie Satz on account of its general availability. I have used Oster's 1979 translation for similar reasons, and also because it invokes a debate about translation that may be profitably viewed through the lens of cross-domain mapping. For one viewpoint on this debate see Robert Snarrenberg, "Competing Myths: The American Abandonment of Schenker's Organicism," in Theory, Analysis and Meaning in Music, edited by Anthony Pople (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 29-56. My thanks to Janna Saslaw for bringing the different uses of Spannung in Der freie Satz to my attention.
For a brief discussion of a similar contrast between meanings of Spannung
in the first volume of Das Meisterwerk in der Musik see Robert
Snarrenberg, Schenker's Interpretive Practice, Cambridge Studies in Music
Theory and Analysis, vol. 11 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997),
93-94.
Return to text
21. Janna K. Saslaw, "Forces, Containers, and Paths: The Role of
Body-Derived Image Schemas in the Conceptualization of Music," Journal of
Music Theory 40, no. 2 (Fall 1996): 217-43.
Return to text
22. Janna K. Saslaw, "Life Forces: Conceptual Structures in Schenker's
Free Composition and Schoenberg's The Musical Idea" (Under review).
Return to text
23. Lawrence Zbikowski, "Conceptual Models and Cross-Domain Mapping: New
Perspectives on Theories of Music and Hierarchy," Journal of Music Theory
41, no. 2 (1997).
Return to text
24. Most of us find descent--especially scalar descent--well
represented by the thought of walking down a staircase, but I think it
could be argued that walking down a hillside works as well. The reason is
that it isn't so much the neat, two-dimensional image of stairs that is
operative but the regular transfer of weight from one leg to another.
Indirect evidence is provided by a striking anecdote related by John
Hockenberry, from a time when he was a reporter for National Public Radio.
In order to get to a group of Kurdish refugees on a remote edge of Iraqi
Kurdistan during the aftermath of the Gulf War, Hockenberry, a paraplegic
since 1976, had to temporarily abandon his wheelchair and get a ride on a
donkey. He comments on the effect of becoming reacquainted with a
non-wheeled mode of transportation through the rhythm of the donkey's gait:
"It was walking, that feeling of groping and climbing and floating on
stilts that I had not felt for fifteen years. I had long ago grown to love
my own wheels and their special physical grace, and so this clumsy leg walk
was not something I missed until the sensation came rushing back through my
body from the shoulders of a donkey." John Hockenberry, Moving
Violations: War Zones, Wheelchairs, and Declarations of Independence (New
York: Hyperion, 1995), 2-3.
Return to text
25. Ray Jackendoff, Consciousness and the Computational Mind
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987), 238.
Return to text
26. Zolt�n K�vecses, Emotion concepts (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990).
Return to text
27. Gibbs, The Poetics of Mind, chapter 7.
Return to text
28. For work on conceptual blending and conceptual integration see Mark
Turner and Gilles Fauconnier, "Conceptual Integration and Formal
Expression," Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 10, no. 3 (1995): 183-204;
Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, "Conceptual Integration Networks,"
Cognitive Science (1996); Fauconnier, Mappings in Thought and Language,
chapter 6; and Turner, The Literary Mind, chapters 5 and 6.
Return to text
29. Lawrence Zbikowski, "Conceptual Blending and Song," unpublished paper
(1997). Conceptual blending can also be used to account for relationships
between instrumental works, text, and images, such as those outlined in
Kielian-Gilbert's analysis of Erik Satie's "Le Water-chute" in
"Interpreting Musical Analogy," 90-91.
Return to text
[2] Any redistributed form of items published in MTO must include the following information in a form appropriate to the medium in which the items are to appear:
This item appeared in Music Theory Online in [VOLUME #, ISSUE #] on [DAY/MONTH/YEAR]. It was authored by [FULL NAME, EMAIL ADDRESS], with whose written permission it is reprinted here.[3] Libraries may archive issues of MTO in electronic or paper form for public access so long as each issue is stored in its entirety, and no access fee is charged. Exceptions to these requirements must be approved in writing by the editors of MTO, who will act in accordance with the decisions of the Society for Music Theory.
This document and all portions thereof are protected by U.S. and international copyright laws. Material contained herein may be copied and/or distributed for research purposes only.